Non-Invasive AI-Assisted Techniques for 3D Printing of the Heart via Image Analysis: Current State, Challenges, and Future Directions

Three-dimensional (3D) printing, or additive manufacturing (AM), is a technique that creates a 3D product from a digital model, allowing for the production of complex shapes with increased design freedom and the possibility of personalization. This makes 3D printing ideal for the construction of biomedical products, such as surgical implants and heart organs, from imaging scan data. Although the development of cardiac 3D models has improved cardiovascular health in various ways, there are challenges associated with the manufacturing of cardiac 3D models, which can be addressed with the use of artificial intelligence (AI) techniques. In this chapter, we review the role of AI in improving the “design” and “in-situ monitoring” phases. In the design phase, AI techniques can be applied to improve accuracy and reduce the time required during whole cardiac segmentation. The in-situ monitoring phase can be enhanced through the automatic detection of surface and geometry defects during the fabrication process of cardiac models. In this chapter, we survey AI techniques for accurate image segmentation, the automatic detection of anomalies during the fabrication process, and the optimization of process parameter settings. The unresolved challenges in 3D printing and future directions for addressing them are also summarized.