Natural methods for increasing reproductive efficiency in small ruminants – the ‘Clean, Green and Ethical’ concept in action.

Invited paper: ‘Clean, green and ethical’ (CGE) animal production is a response to consumer demand in high-profit markets: 1) Clean – products must be safe (no chemicals or pathogens) and healthy; 2) Green – low environmental impact; 3) Ethical – attention to animal welfare. Thus, for goats and sheep, the ‘male effect’ can be used to control the timing of reproductive events and ‘focus feeding’ can be used to improve specific reproductive processes. New forages with anthelmintic properties might provide a solution for gastrointestinal nematodes; other new forages can be used to reduce methane production. We can also harness the power of genetics. This will require accurate animal identification, but is also a first step towards traceability, a prerequisite for export markets. Ethical standards are difficult because the issues are assessed differently by producers, distributors and consumers of different cultural backgrounds. The solution to this problem will be found in informed debate and education. Importantly, CGE practices must be inexpensive and easy to implement in any socio-economic context. To prepare for the future, we need research and development, and changes in government policy.