A comprehensive review on the recovery of lithium from lithium-ion batteries and spodumene

The growing demand for Lithium-Ion batteries (LIBs) for use within varied electronics and electric vehicles (EVs) has raised concerns about the sustainability of lithium extraction from natural deposits. This study provides a comprehensive comparison of lithium recovery through mining of spodumene deposits, and the recovery of lithium from used batteries via recycling, in terms of technological, economic and environmental impacts. Lithium recovered through mining and refining operations prompt significant land disruption and soil contamination and possess large ecological, water and carbon footprints. Contrastingly, lithium recovered through battery recycling undergoes successive heat and chemical treatments, leading to waste minimisation and a significant reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, up to 17–61 % subject to the recycling techniques employed, without disrupting land or contaminating soil, and occurring at a significantly lower capital cost. Moreover, the water footprint of lithium recovery through recycling is also much lower in contrast with mining. Considering technological, economic and environmental factors, this review paper presents lithium recovered through the recycling of LIBs as a feasible option. Lastly, the study discusses the major challenges and future prospects for improving the feasibility and sustainability of lithium recovery.